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Linguistics
An Essential Introduction
The LEI Team (Editor), Anatol Stefanowitsch (Editor)
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Front Matter
1
Human language and language science
1.1
What is language?
Aspects of language
What about reading and writing?
1.2
Studying language scientifically
Metalinguistic knowledge as a source of empirical data
Proper sources of empirical data
1.3
Thinking about standards and “proper” grammar
Language standards and “standard” languages
Isn’t it good to have standards?
1.4
Doing harm with language science
1.5
Doing good with language science
2
Language as a system of signs
2.1
The linguistic sign
What is a sign?
The arbitrariness of linguistic signs
2.2
Sense and reference
2.3
Other types of signs
So, what about indexical and iconic signs in language?
2.4
Two levels of organization
3
Phonetics
3.1
Language modality
Why writing is different
The study of modality
3.2
Speech articulators
Overview of the vocal tract
Open spaces in the vocal tract
Producing sound: the vocal folds
The basic units of speech: phones
3.3
Describing consonants: Place
Consonants as constrictions
Active articulators
Passive articulators
Place of articulation
Glottal articulation
3.4
Describing consonants: Manner
Plosives
Nasals
Other types of stops
Fricatives
Approximants
Affricates
Other manners of articulation
Other classes of consonants
Putting it all together!
3.5
Describing vowels
Vowel quality
Openness
Backness
Rounding
Tenseness
Length
Nasality
Multiple vowel qualities in sequence
Putting it all together!
3.6
The International Phonetic Alphabet
Segmentation
Transcription
The International Phonetic Alphabet
Transcribing English with the IPA
Consonants
Vowels
The IPA in the real world: A warning
3.7
Syllables
What are syllables?
The maximal onset principle
Crosslinguistic patterns in spoken language syllable types
4
Phonology
4.1
Phonemes and allophones
4.2
A closer look at phonemes
Relevant and irrelevant distinctions
Identifying phonemes using minimal pairs
Contrastive distribution
4.3
A closer look at allophones
4.4
Motivations and limits of allophony
Motivations
Limits
4.5
Phonotactics
Universal phonotactics: the sonority sequencing principle
Language-specific phonotactics
4.6
Stress
The phonetics of stressed syllables
Degrees of stress
Lexical versus predictable stress
Stress-timed and syllable-timed languages
4.7
Intonation
Pitch
Tone notation
Tone as a phonemic property
More tones
Contour tones
Intonation
5
Morphology
5.1
A first look at morphology
5.2
Types of morphemes
Free and bound morphemes
Types of affixes
Clitics
5.3
A closer look at roots and bases
Bound roots
Bound complex bases
Unique roots
5.4
Derivation vs. inflection
An excursion: word classes
Critical cases
5.5
Typical functions of inflection
Case
Gender
Number
Mood
Evidentiality
5.6
Word-formation rules
Conversion
Clitics
Backformation
Boundaries in word formation
5.7
Compounds
5.8
Word-formation without morphology
5.9
Allomorphy
5.10
Morphological typology
6
Lexical semantics
6.1
The study of word meaning
6.2
A closer look at reference: extension
Proper nouns and common nouns
Verbs and adjectives
6.3
From extension to intension
6.4
How to represent meaning
6.5
World knowledge and word meaning
6.6
Denotation and connotation
Slurs
6.7
Word senses
Distinguishing ambiguity from vagueness and indeterminacy
Polysemy and homonymy
6.8
Lexical relations
Synonyms
Antonyms
Gradable antonymy
Complementary antonymy
Converse antonymy
Reverse antonymy
Hyponymy and taxonymy
Meronymy
6.9
Semantic fields and frames
7
Syntax
7.1
Studying syntax
7.2
Constituent tests
Replacement tests
Deletion tests
Fragment tests
Movement tests
7.3
Phrases
From constituents to phrases
A notation for constituent structure
Coordination
Structural ambiguity
7.4
Phrase structure rules
The noun phrase
The adjective phrase
The prepositional phrase
The verb phrase
Auxiliaries and modals
The adverb phrase
7.5
Valency
Syntactic valency
Semantic valency
Valency change
7.6
Clause structure
A phrase-structure rule for sentences
Subjects and objects
Active and passive voice
Subject, object and word order
7.7
Clause types and their relation to each other
Clause types
The structure of different clause types
Structural relations between clause types
8
Sentence meaning
8.1
Studying sentence meaning
8.2
Propositions and truth conditions
8.3
Conjunctions
8.4
Presupposition
Expressive presuppositions
9
Pragmatics
9.1
Studying Speaker meaning
9.2
The Cooperative Principle
9.3
Illocutionary force
9.4
Direct and indirect Speech acts
10
Text linguistics
10.1
What is a text?
10.2
Textual coherence
10.3
Textual cohesion
Devices that signal links between clauses
Properties of linked clauses
10.4
Is cohesion coherence?
10.5
Classifying texts: Genre
10.6
Other classifications of texts
11
Signed language phonetics, phonology and morphology
11.1
Signed language articulators
The phonetic units of signed languages
Manual articulators
Shoulder articulation
Elbow articulation
Radioulnar articulation
Wrist articulation
Base knuckle articulation
Interphalangeal articulation
Describing manual movement
Nonmanual articulators
11.2
Describing signs
Signed language parameters
Handshape
Orientation
Location
Movement
Minimal pairs
11.3
Signed language notation
11.4
Signed language phonology
Modality differences in phonological rules
Weak hand freeze
Weak hand drop
Lowering
Distalization and proximalization
11.5
Morphology in signed language
Backmatter
Colophon
Colophon
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