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Linguistics
An Essential Introduction(Version 1.6)
Anatol Stefanowitsch (Editor), The LEI Team (Editor)
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Front Matter
1
Preludes
1.1
What do we investigate when we investigate language?
1.1.1
Language and other ways of communicating
1.1.2
Language and modality
1.1.3
Language and writing
1.1.4
The study of language in other disciplines
1.1.5
1.2
Linguistics vs. prescriptivism
1.2.1
The case of
irregardless
1.2.2
The case of ending sentences with prepositions
1.2.3
1.3
Other normative approaches to language
1.3.1
Writing advice
1.3.2
Language and social justice
1.3.3
1.4
Studying language scientifically
1.4.1
Thinking about language scientifically
1.4.2
Metalinguistic knowledge as a source of empirical data
1.4.3
Proper sources of empirical data
1.4.4
1.5
Language Variation
1.5.1
English around the World
1.5.2
Two models of World English
1.5.3
1.6
Doing harm with language science
1.6.1
Missionary linguistics
1.6.2
Linguistic complicity
1.6.3
Oralism
1.6.4
1.7
Doing good with language science
1.7.1
Language technology
1.7.2
Language revitalization
1.7.3
Language teaching
1.7.4
Clinical linguistics
1.7.5
Other industries
1.7.6
2
Language as a system of signs
2.1
Form-meaning pairs
2.1.1
The linguistic sign
2.1.2
Linguistic form
2.1.3
Linguistic meaning
2.1.4
The association between form and meaning
2.1.5
2.2
The relation between form and meaning
2.2.1
The arbitrariness of linguistic signs
2.2.2
Seeming exceptions to arbitrariness
2.2.3
Real exceptions to arbitrariness
2.2.4
Language-internal exceptions to arbitrariness
2.2.5
2.3
More on meaning
2.3.1
Two kinds of meaning
2.3.2
Signs and speakers
2.3.3
2.4
More on form
2.4.1
Size limits in communication systems
2.4.2
Two levels of organization
2.4.3
2.5
Relations between signs
2.5.1
Syntagmatic relations
2.5.2
Paradigmatic relations
2.5.3
2.6
Beyond the basics: Index, icon and symbol in semiotics
2.6.1
Indexical signs
2.6.2
Iconic signs
2.6.3
Symbolic signs
2.7
Beyond the basics: Index, icon and symbol in language
2.7.1
Indexical and iconic signs in spoken language
2.7.2
Iconic signs in signed language
2.7.3
3
Word meaning
3.1
Sense and reference
3.1.1
How do names refer?
3.1.2
How do common nouns refer?
3.1.3
Actual and possible worlds
3.1.4
3.2
What is sense?
3.2.1
Meaning and knowledge
3.2.2
Meaning, canonicity and idealised models
3.2.3
3.3
Representing meaning
3.3.1
Circularity and abstractness
3.3.2
Potential solutions to circularity and abstractness
3.3.3
3.4
Word senses
3.4.1
Distinguishing ambiguity from vagueness and indeterminacy
3.4.2
Polysemy and homonymy
3.4.3
3.5
Lexical relations
3.5.1
Synonyms
3.5.2
Antonyms
3.5.3
Gradable antonymy
3.5.4
Complementary antonymy
3.5.5
Converse antonymy
3.5.6
Reverse antonymy
3.5.7
Hyponymy and taxonymy
3.5.8
Meronymy
3.5.9
3.6
Frames
3.6.1
What are frames?
3.6.2
Underspecification
3.6.3
3.7
Denotation and connotation
3.7.1
Descriptive and expressive meaning
3.7.2
Expressive meanings and truth
3.7.3
4
Sentence meaning
4.1
Predicates and propositions
4.1.1
Predicates
4.1.2
Propositions
4.2
Truth conditions
4.2.1
Paraphrases
4.2.2
Entailment
4.2.3
Contradiction
4.2.4
Contrariety
4.2.5
4.3
Presupposition
4.3.1
Propositions and presuppositions
4.3.2
Presupposition triggers
4.3.3
Cancelling presuppositions
4.4
Compositionality and idiomaticity
4.4.1
Compositionality
4.4.2
Idiomaticity
4.5
Beyond the basics: Conjunctions
4.5.1
And
4.5.2
Or
4.6
Beyond the basics: Slurs
4.6.1
What are slurs?
4.6.2
How do slurs work?
4.6.3
How to respond to slurs
5
Phonetics
5.1
Language modality
5.1.1
Why writing is different
5.1.2
The study of modality
5.1.3
5.2
Speech articulators
5.2.1
Overview of the vocal tract
5.2.2
Open spaces in the vocal tract
5.2.3
Producing sound: the vocal folds
5.2.4
The basic units of speech: phones
5.2.5
5.3
Describing consonants: Place
5.3.1
Active articulators
5.3.2
Passive articulators
5.3.3
Place of articulation
5.3.4
Glottal articulation
5.3.5
5.4
Describing consonants: Manner
5.4.1
Plosives
5.4.2
Nasals
5.4.3
Other types of stops
5.4.4
Fricatives
5.4.5
Approximants
5.4.6
Affricates
5.4.7
Other manners of articulation
5.4.8
Other classes of consonants
5.4.9
Putting it all together!
5.4.10
5.5
Describing vowels
5.5.1
Openness
5.5.2
Backness
5.5.3
Rounding
5.5.4
Tenseness
5.5.5
Length
5.5.6
Nasality
5.5.7
Multiple vowel qualities in sequence
5.5.8
Putting it all together!
5.5.9
5.6
The International Phonetic Alphabet
5.6.1
Segmentation
5.6.2
Transcription
5.6.3
The International Phonetic Alphabet
5.6.4
Transcribing English with the IPA
5.6.5
Consonants
5.6.6
Vowels
5.6.7
The IPA in the real world: A warning
5.6.8
5.7
Syllables
5.7.1
What are syllables
5.7.2
The maximal onset principle
5.7.3
Crosslinguistic patterns in spoken language syllable types
5.7.4
6
Phonology
6.1
Phonemes and allophones
6.1.1
Relevant and irrelevant aspects of sppech sounds
6.1.2
Phonemes
6.1.3
6.2
A closer look at phonemes
6.2.1
Meaningful phonetic distinctions
6.2.2
Identifying phonemes using minimal pairs
6.2.3
Contrastive distribution
6.2.4
6.3
A closer look at allophones
6.3.1
Complementary distribution
6.3.2
Phonological rules
6.3.3
6.4
Motivations and limits of allophony
6.4.1
Motivations
6.4.2
Limits
6.4.3
6.5
Phonotactics
6.5.1
Universal phonotactics: the sonority sequencing principle
6.5.2
Language-specific phonotactics
6.5.3
6.6
Stress
6.6.1
Degrees of stress
6.6.2
Lexical versus predictable stress
6.6.3
Stress-timed and syllable-timed languages
6.6.4
6.7
Intonation
6.7.1
Pitch
6.7.2
Tone notation
6.7.3
Tone as a phonemic property
6.7.4
More tones
6.7.5
Contour tones
6.7.6
Intonation
6.7.7
7
Morphology
7.1
A first look at morphology
7.1.1
Morphological analysis
7.1.2
7.2
Types of morphemes
7.2.1
Free and bound morphemes
7.2.2
Types of affixes
7.2.3
Clitics
7.2.4
7.3
Derivation vs. inflection
7.3.1
Differences between inflection and derivation
7.3.2
An excursion: word classes
7.3.3
Critical cases
7.3.4
7.4
Typical functions of inflection
7.4.1
The inflectional affixes of English
7.4.2
Case
7.4.3
Gender
7.4.4
Number
7.4.5
Mood
7.4.6
Evidentiality
7.4.7
7.5
Word-formation
7.5.1
Word-formation rules
7.5.2
Conversion
7.5.3
Clitics
7.5.4
Backformation
7.5.5
Boundaries in word formation
7.5.6
7.6
Allomorphy
7.6.1
Morphemes as abstract categories
7.6.2
Allomorphic rules
7.6.3
Conditioning
7.6.4
Exceptions
7.6.5
An example: the prefix {
in
‑}
7.6.6
7.7
Morphological typology
7.7.1
Analytic languages
7.7.2
Synthetic languages
7.7.3
Agglutinating and fusional languages
7.7.4
Morphological language types
7.7.5
7.8
Beyond the basics: Word-formation without morphology
7.8.1
Clipping
7.8.2
Blending
7.8.3
Acronyms and initialisms
7.8.4
7.9
Beyond the basics: Compounds
7.9.1
A reminder about orthography
7.9.2
Types of compounds
7.9.3
Word-formation rules for compounds
7.9.4
7.10
Beyond the basics: A closer look at roots and bases
7.10.1
Bound roots
7.10.2
Bound complex bases
7.10.3
Unique roots
7.10.4
8
Syntax
8.1
Studying syntax
8.1.1
Combining words into larger units
8.1.2
Why languages need syntax
8.1.3
8.2
Constituent tests
8.2.1
Identifying syntactic units
8.2.2
Replacement tests
8.2.3
Deletion tests
8.2.4
Fragment tests
8.2.5
Movement tests
8.2.6
8.3
Phrases
8.3.1
From constituents to phrases
8.3.2
A notation for constituent structure
8.3.3
Coordination
8.3.4
Structural ambiguity
8.3.5
8.4
Phrase structure rules
8.4.1
The noun phrase
8.4.2
The adjective phrase
8.4.3
The prepositional phrase
8.4.4
The verb phrase
8.4.5
Auxiliaries and modals
8.4.6
The adverb phrase
8.4.7
8.5
Valence
8.5.1
Syntactic valence
8.5.2
The place of subjects in valence
8.5.3
Obligatoriness, adjuncts and complements
8.5.4
Semantic valence
8.5.5
Valence change
8.5.6
8.6
Clause structure
8.6.1
A phrase-structure rule for sentences
8.6.2
Subjects and objects
8.6.3
Active and passive voice
8.6.4
Subject, object and word order
8.6.5
8.7
Clause types and their relation to each other
8.7.1
Clause types
8.7.2
The structure of different clause types
8.7.3
8.8
Beyond the basics: Structural relations between clause types
8.8.1
Correspondences between phrase structure rules
8.8.2
Beyond constituency: hierarchy and order
8.8.3
8.9
Beyond the basics: idiomaticity and compositionality
8.9.1
Phrase-structure rules and compositionality
8.9.2
Phrase-structure rules and idiomaticity
9
Speaker meaning
9.1
Studying Speaker meaning
9.1.1
Implicature
9.1.2
Illocution
9.1.3
9.2
The Cooperative Principle
9.2.1
Inferencing
9.2.2
The Cooperative Principle
9.2.3
9.3
Illocutionary force
9.3.1
Speech acts
9.3.2
Felicity conditions
9.3.3
9.4
Direct and indirect Speech acts
9.4.1
Directness and indirectness
9.4.2
10
Text linguistics
10.1
What is a text?
10.1.1
What is a text?
10.1.2
10.2
Textual coherence
10.2.1
What makes a text coherent?
10.2.2
10.3
Textual cohesion
10.3.1
Devices that signal links between clauses
10.3.2
Properties of linked clauses
10.3.3
10.4
Is cohesion coherence?
10.4.1
Cohesion as the linguistic realization of coherence
10.4.2
10.5
Classifying texts: Genre
10.5.1
Differences between texts
10.5.2
Genre
10.5.3
Modality
10.5.4
Register
10.5.5
Topic
10.5.6
11
Signed language phonetics, phonology and morphology
11.1
Signed language articulators
11.1.1
The phonetic units of signed languages
11.1.2
Manual articulators
11.1.3
Shoulder articulation
11.1.4
Elbow articulation
11.1.5
Radioulnar articulation
11.1.6
Wrist articulation
11.1.7
Base knuckle articulation
11.1.8
Interphalangeal articulation
11.1.9
Describing manual movement
11.1.10
Nonmanual articulators
11.1.11
11.2
Describing signs
11.2.1
Handshape
11.2.2
Orientation
11.2.3
Location
11.2.4
Movement
11.2.5
Minimal pairs
11.2.6
11.3
Signed language notation
11.3.1
Stokoe’s system
11.3.2
11.4
Signed language phonology
11.4.1
Weak hand freeze
11.4.2
Weak hand drop
11.4.3
Lowering
11.4.4
Distalization and proximalization
11.4.5
11.5
Morphology in signed language
11.5.1
Simultaneous affixation
11.5.2
Sequential affixation
11.5.3
Allomorphy
11.5.4
Back Matter
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